Syria and the Revolution

Introduction The Arab wave of unrest began in Tunisia in December 2010, and led to the ousting of Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali, who had ruled the country for 23 years. The revolution in this small North African country was characterized by demonstrations and riots, which were quelled violently by the police and other state security agencies (Barnard and Cowell 2).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Syria and the Revolution specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, the protestors relentlessly pursued their course and on 14th January 2011, 28 days after, the president resigned and fled to Saudi Arabia. This revolution was replicated in Egypt on 25th January 2011 and on February 11 2011; Hosni Mubarak resigned, ending his 30 years reign over the country. The wave of Arab revolution hit Syria on 15th march 2011 (Barnard and Cowell 2). It all started in a small southern city, whose residents held street protests after student s who had displayed anti-government graffiti were tortured. The government used extreme force on the protestors and the demonstrations spread rapidly to various other parts of the country. The confrontations between protestors and government security agencies have left several people dead and injured and are threatening to escalate into a civil war. President Bashar al-Assad and members of his family continue holding onto power despite the international and internal pressure to end violence against civilians and allow political change (Barnard and Cowell 2) Background Information on Revolution Syria has a population of about 21 million people and is under the authoritarian rule headed by President Bashar al-Assad. The constitution authorizes supremacy of leaders from the Ba’ath Party in the society and state institutions (Sharp 1). Party members and President Assad’s family dominate the three arms of the government. Syria has had a state of emergency since 1963, which grants security agencies enormous power of suppressing any opposition (Sharp 1).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The political and socio-economic conditions in Syria have led to deep discontent with the status quo that has contributed to the high inflation and unemployment rates, minimum political freedom, suppressive security forces and rampant corruption. Although protests started in a smaller marginalized town, their intensity has been more in larger cities of Aleppo and Damascus. This is a clear indication that people in larger towns are more opposed to Assad’s regime as they experience the problems mentioned above firsthand (Sharp 2). Key Players in the Revolution Opposition Groups and Demonstrators Most demonstrators are politically conversant and frustrated males between the ages of 20 to 40 years (Ecoi.Net par. 4). Although the Syrian opposition groups have become more or ganized during the revolution, they still remain largely divided over leadership, coordination, tactics and strategy. The Local Coordinating Councils present in many regions, played a vital role during the protest stage of the revolution as it linked activists from all over the country using informal networks (Sharp 3). Armed activists from Syria and other neighboring countries joined in the foray, as the unrest moved to greater heights of confrontations and violence. Some of the major opposition groups currently involved in the conflict are discussed below; The Free Syrian Army (FSA)-This group is made up of dissident military officers and personnel who defected from the government. They are armed and mainly attack government troops. The group is made up of individual security personnel, who defied orders to ruthlessly attack civilian protestors. Earlier this year, the FSA swore to put more effort in dealing with government troops that were using excessive force on civilians. FSA threatened to attack more military security centers, because they were used by the government in attacking and suppressing the Syrian people (Sharp 3). The Syrian National Council (SNC) – This group that was formed in October 2011 in Turkey is made up of external activists. The group wants the government to call off the crackdown on protestors and protect civilians (Sharp 3). The National Coordination Commission of the Forces of Democratic Change (NCC) – This is an alliance of leftist groups based in Syria and Kurdish activists. The group is against any civilian protection that involves external militaries and is willing to dialogue with the government, as long ruthless attacks on protestors cease (Sharp 3). These oppositions groups justify that they have resulted into using force to repress the excessive violent tactics used by the government security agencies to quell the riots. Assad’s regime has condemned attacks on the police and military forces by these o pposition groups that have been termed as terrorist groups. The ethnic divisions in Syria further complicate the conflict since the county’s elite and Assad’s family belong to the minority Alawite faction, in this largely Sunni country (Sharp 4).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Syria and the Revolution specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Government Forces Assad’s regime has dealt ruthlessly with popular protests and opposition. Security forces and the military have been used in suppressing peaceful protests across the country. The Shabbiha or the Alawite civilian militia has been used by Assad’s regime to mete out violence on innocent civilians. One year since the revolution began; the government forces have continued to viciously crash any opposition (Sharp 5). In March 2012, the government unleashed bloody attacks on insurgents’ strongholds of Idlib and Homs. According to United Nations, more than 9,000 Syrians have lost their lives and thousands have been displaced since March 2011, when the unrest began (Sharp 5). Assad’s Reaction to the Revolution President al-Assad announced some reforms as a result of criticism from international communities and growing protests. He also gave amnesty to various groups of prisoners and some were freed. Assad also passed orders permitting peaceful demonstrations under certain situations and allowed the legal registration of other political parties apart from Ba’ath. He also lifted the state of emergency that had been in place for 48 years. On December 19th 2011, Assad’s government opened a national dialogue aimed at creating a multiparty democracy. However, opposition leaders in the country boycotted this event. Recently, Assad’s government called for a referendum on the new constitution on 26 February 2012 (Ecoi.Net par. 9). This new constitution stipulates that it will end Ba’ath par ty supremacy, but bestows most of the powers on Bashar al-Assad. According to Syrian state television, 89 percent of Syrians supported the new constitution in the referendum. The West and opposition activists shunned these results, as they saw this as a new strategy by Asad to hold unto power.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Violation of Human Rights During the revolution, numerous abuses of human rights have been witnessed. Apart from the extensive systematic attacks on the civilian population organized and executed by state security forces, deaths in custody have also been reported. According to Amnesty International, 88 deaths have occurred in state custodies between April 1st and August 15th 2011. It is also estimated that not less than 190 people including children, have died while in custody (Ecoi.Net par. 10). Violation of human rights has also been witnessed in state hospitals where injured people are taken for treatment. People injured during demonstrations have reportedly been physically and verbally abused by the medical staff and sometimes deprived of medical care. People taken to hospitals have also been detained and arrested by security forces (Ecoi.Net par. 13) Vocal Syrian activists living abroad have not been spared either, as they are systematically harassed by embassy officials. Their families in Syria have been constantly harassed and intimidated by government authorities. The Syrian security has tortured and captured children during the one year of uprising. Some children have been shot in the streets or at home, while others have been captured and kept in inhumane environments. Schools have been used as military barracks, bases, sniper posts or detention centers. (Ecoi.Net par.143) International Response to Revolution Although condemnation for Assad’s regime has been wide from all corners of the world, most external players have failed in their efforts to stop the bloodshed. The Arab League expelled Syria from its council after it violated a peace plan that pledged to allow peaceful protests by pulling out the army from the streets. Assad’s government never honored the promise, but instead intensified the crack down on protesters. On 19th December 2011, the government agreed to fully cooperate with the Arab League by allowing an observer mission into the country (Ecoi.Net par. 15). The leagues presence did not improve the situation, as the government forces continued meting out violence on protesters (Ecoi.Net par. 25). The Arab league also formulated a transition plan that was presented to the United Nations Security Council. This plan was vetoed by China and Russia, who are permanent members of the Security Council. The international community opposing Assad’s regime can only undertake a collective action with the assistance of Syrian people, since the UN backed mandate failed. The EU and the US as well as the Arab league placed economic sanctions on Syria. It also put an embargo on exportation of weapons to the country and banned it member states from purchasing oil from Syria. The EU also banned the delivery of bank notes to the central bank of Syria and prohibited the trade of precious metals and gold with the state (Ecoi.Net par. 21). The EU also banned cargo flights from the country. The US has frozen all Syr ian government assets that are within its jurisdiction and banned US residents from performing any transactions with blacklisted individuals within the Syrian government. Turkey and Arab league have also followed suit and banned any transactions with Assad’s government. Assad’s government has found allies, with Russia sending a shipment of arms for the Syrian troops. Iran is another close ally that has sent cash, arms and advisors to Syria. It also assists Syria in exporting its oil abroad. Hezbollah from Lebanon has also declared its support for Assad’s regime. Conclusion President Assad is using the massive firepower to hold unto power and prevent the opposition from seizing power in any region. Assad’s strategy to hold on to power involves using ruthless crackdowns on opposition, thus preventing them from forming an effective, cohesive leadership. However, the protests threaten to escalate into a full civil war with tension already spilling over to oth er regions such as Jordan, turkey, Iraq and Lebanon (Barnard and Cowell 2). The latest efforts to end the one year bloody revolution are through a plan formulated by Kofi Annan, the former UN secretary. The plan proposes six points that will be used in ending the violence in Syria. These include; releasing prisoners, allowing journalists’ access, permitting free movement, withdrawing heavy troops and weapons from civilian centers and allowing humanitarian assistance. Assad has warmed up to this plan as well as the Arab League, which has dropped its initial demands for the president to step down (Siddique and Whitaker 10). Works Cited Barnard, Anne Alan Cowell. â€Å"Syria.† The New York Times 29 March, 2012, late ed.: F1, F9. Ecoi.Net. 2012. The 2011-2012 political unrest in Syria. Web. Sharp, Jeremy. 2012. Unrest in Syria and U.S. Sanctions Against the Asad Regime. PDF file. Web. Siddique, Haroon Brian Whitaker. â€Å"Syria Accepts Annan Peace Plan.† The Guar dian 27 March 2012, early ed.: F10, F13. This essay on Syria and the Revolution was written and submitted by user H0ly to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Countries, Nationalities, and Languages in French

Countries, Nationalities, and Languages in French Using the names of  countries around the world is fairly easy  if you have memorized them. This is an easy vocabulary lesson because the French names are very similar to what you are used to saying in English. The only tricky part is making sure you use the correct prepositions, which change with the gender of the country or continent youre discussing. Beyond the country name itself, we will learn the word describing the nationality of a countrys residents and the names of the primary languages spoken. Plus, we will review the names for the worlds continents.   Note that the additional letters required to make nationalities and  adjectives feminine are indicated in parentheses after the relevant words. Finally,  wherever you see a little speaker after a name, you can click on it and hear the word pronounced. The Continents (Les Continents) There are the seven continents of the world; seven is the prevailing convention at present, while some countries list six continents and others, five. Notice the similarities between the English and French names. The adjectives are very similar and can be used to describe the residents of each continent. Continent In French Adjective Africa Afrique Africain(e) Antarctica Antarctique Asia Asie Asiatique Australia Australie Australien(ne) Europe Europe Europà ©en(ne) North America Amà ©rique du Nord Nord-Amà ©ricain(e) South America Amà ©rique du Sud Sud-Amà ©ricain(e) Languages and Nationalities (Les Langues  et  Les  Nationalità ©s) It would be a very long list if we were to include every country in the world, so only a small selection is included in this lesson. It is designed to give you an idea of how countries, nationalities, and languages are translated between English and French; its intended as an indicative list, not a comprehensive list of countries. That said, we do have a comprehensive list of the French names for the worlds countries  elsewhere, which you do well to  review. For nationalities, the proper  noun  and adjective are exactly the same, except the proper noun is capitalized, while the adjective is not capitalized.  Thus:  un Amà ©ricain  but  un type amà ©ricain. You will also note that the masculine adjective for many of these countries is spelled and pronounced just like the languages.   Only the primary languages for each country are included in the list, though many countries have citizens who speak many languages. Also, note that the names of the languages are always masculine and are not capitalized. Country Name Name In French Nationality Language(s) Algeria Algà ©rie Algà ©rien(ne) l'arabe, le franà §ais Australia Australie Australien(ne) l'anglais Belgium Belgique Belge le flamand, le franà §ais Brazil Brà ©sil Brà ©silien(ne) le portugais Canada Canada Canadien(ne) le franà §ais, l'anglais China Chine Chinois(e) le chinois Egypt Egypte Égyptien(ne) l'arabe England Angleterre Anglais(e) l'anglais France France Franà §ais(e) le franà §ais Germany Allemagne Allemand(e) l'allemand India Inde Indien(ne) l'hindi (plus many others) Ireland Irlande Irlandais(e) l'anglais, l'irlandais Italy Italie Italien(ne) l'italien Japan Japon Japonais(e) le japonais Mexico Mexique Mexicain(e) l'espagnol Morocco Maroc Marocain(e) l'arabe, le franà §ais Netherlands Pays-Bas Nà ©erlandais(e) le nà ©erlandais Poland Pologne Polonais(e) le polonais Portugal Portugal Portugais(e) le portugais Russia Russie Russe le russe Senegal Sà ©nà ©gal Sà ©nà ©galais(e) le franà §ais Spain Espagne Espagnol(e) l'espagnol Switzerland Suisse Suisse l'allemand, le franà §ais, l'italien United States United Stats Amà ©ricain(e) l'anglais

Nature and nurture Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Nature and nurture - Research Paper Example Some people also argue that both have an equal share in developing a child. Essentially, the question is, which of the two influences the children more, their biological and genetic circumstances i.e. nature, or their socioeconomic environment, peer associations and parenting skills i.e. nurture? Most experts are of the view that both the nature and nurture play a big role in the child’s cognitive, social and physical development, though there is little to no information regarding the degree to which either of the two participates in the processes of development. This essay aims at discussing the influence of nature and nurture on babies. Nowadays, people generally understand the relationship between nature and nurture. Babies are obviously influenced by both nature and nurture. Nature and nurture play mixed roles in the development of a baby's speech. The nature part of it is that the baby is bourn with the ability to learn the skill of making speech. On the other hand, the e nvironment in which a child grows up causes the child to start speaking within one to two years. The reason why babies start to speak when they are as little as one year old is that their brain is not complete. For example, children who grow up in the middle class of America start to speak when they are only one year old in comparison to the children that live in San Marcos village in Guantanamo, who take quite longer to begin speaking.

Current Issues in International Business and Management, Q) Does Essay

Current Issues in International Business and Management, Q) Does wealth inequality matter Critically discuss with reference to current research - Essay Example The rapid growth and development that has been witnessed in several parts of the world over the last years has led to a significant decrease in the levels of poverty. Moreover, in general, led to a higher increase in the levels of per capita income and this translates to increase in the income of the poor in a proportionate amount. The global crisis witnessed recently together with the impact it has had on the economic activities, number of jobs and the poor, has just spurred a renewed focus on the factors driving growth. These factors include the possible link between income inequality, sustainability of growth and crises (Castaeda et al. 2003). With GDP, the countries that have high per capita income do not occasionally have good quality of life. There are several countries in the developing world whose gross domestic product is high such as Sudan and Eritrea but the quality of life in the countries is still below the level of a â€Å"good† life. Therefore, GDP cannot be used as a measure of how prosperous people are. Nonetheless, rapid increase in the gross domestic product has been associated with decreasing poverty index. Within several countries, indicators of wealth inequalities such as Gini coefficient reveal less about people who have benefited and lost from the trends. Household situations provide a clear and complete view and show that in several countries, gains in disposable incomes have fallen short of GDP increase. These cases have been particularly for the households, which are poor. The middle-income households have fared better but though they are also lagging behind the growth of gross domestic product. It is observed that globalisation is creating pressures that ultimately increase inequality levels in the contemporary society. The proponents of globalisation have hailed the rapid growth of the economy. In addition, indeed, after several decades of dramatic improvement and rapid economic growth, some of the countries that

The Economic Reform of China Essay Example for Free

The Economic Reform of China Essay In the late 1970s, China initiated a full-scale economic reform in rural and urban parts of the country, because of the economic reform China has transformed itself from a centrally planned economy to an emerging market economy and at the same time its economy has achieved nearly a 9.5 percent average growth rate. The pace of China’s growth is not unique — Korea, Singapore and other economies in East Asia grew as fast in the 1970s and 1980s. What is unprecedented historically is its scale. The size of China’s population, market and geography, and the dynamism that flowed from economic reform and transformation are what define its impact on the rest of the world. Despite a still relatively low per capita income, the sheer size of the Chinese economy has made China a significant player in world production, consumption, trade and increasingly international finance and the environment. The historic decision on â€Å"reform and opening-up† made at the Third Plenum of the CCP Eleventh Party Congress on December 18-22, 1978, marked the beginning of China’s reform era. At the time, China had a clear desire to increase productivity and raise living standards by reforming its economic system and structure, but it did not have a clear objective of what the new system would be like. Furthermore, the reform did not have a well-designed strategy or policy measures. China’s economic reform was often distinguished from the market reform of the Soviet Union and many former socialist countries in Eastern Europe. First, unlike the case of the Soviet Union, China did not change its political system and was able to maintain political stability. Second, China’s reform process did not have a blueprint. Each step was taken after drawing the experience of the previous step. As Deng put it, the process was like a person walking across the river by feeling the rocks in each step. This characteristic was necessitated by the lack of knowledge of what kind of market economy was suitable for China on the part of the leaders. They had  to learn by experimentation. Secondly, experimentation helped convince the party members of the validity of the new institutions. The slogan â€Å"to build an economic system with Chinese characteristics† was introduced in the early 1980’s and remains in constant use in the early 2000’s. â€Å"Chinese characteristics† mean the results of experimentation that are shown to work for China. This slogan also implies that the Chinese leaders are pragmatic and not confined to a set of old Communist ideology. Recall Deng Xiaoping’s famous statement, â€Å"it does not matter whether a cat is black or white as long as it catches mice.† Pragmatism over ideology is an important trait of China’s reform process. China’s reform measures that resulted from experimentation include the â€Å"household responsibility system† in agriculture, autonomy and the †contract responsibility system† for state industrial enterprises, the free economic zones as experiments for foreign trade and investment policies, and the introduction of share-holding companies in Jiang Zemin’s report of September 1997 partly as a result of the successful experience of some small and medium sized state enterprises that was initiated by the individual enterprises themselves. One advantage of China’s economic condition over that of the Soviet Union at the early stage of reform was that the Chinese farmers knew how to farm as private farmers. Collective farming was introduced under the Commune System only in 1958, twenty years before the reform. The farmers still remembered how to farm and they also had some practice in 1963-1965 during the president of Liu Shaoqi who introduced some elements of private farming after the economic collapse of the Great Leap Forward Movement of 1958-62. On the other hand collective farming had been introduced in the 1930’s, sixty years before the reform of the Soviet economy in the early 1990’s. Russian farmers did not know how to farm as individual farmers. The large increase of agricultural productivity in China served as the basis for further economic growth and reform. In 1977, Deng Xiaoping made it clear that performance should be the main consideration in the economic and social advancement of individuals. In  other words, professionalism and results should count. Furthermore, he emphasized the importance of academics and scientists for the future of the economic development and the international standing of China. He thought that this should be more widely recognized by the Chinese people. During 1978, Deng Xiaoping’s reform philosophy gained growing support in the CCP and its desirability was accepted in December 1978 at the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee. This session proved to be a turning point in the direction of China’s policies for its economic and social development. It was decided at this meeting that the system and methods of economic management in China would be transformed; economic co-operation with other countries would be expanded; special efforts would be made to adopt the world’s advanced technologies and equipment; and that scientific and educational work would be greatly strengthened to meet the needs of modernization. The importance of the four modernizations (modernizing agriculture, industry, national defense, science and technology) was emphasized. 2.0. Meaning of reform 2.1. Agriculture Beginning in 1978 several major institutional reforms have been undertaken. First is the adoption of the household responsibility system in agriculture. Collective farming under the Commune system introduced by Mao in 1958 in the Great Leap Forward Movement was being practiced. Farmers worked as a team consisting of some forty persons. A farmer could not get extra reward by working harder because all members of the team would share the additional output due to his additional labor. Chinese farmers deserved credit for initiating reform in agriculture. Some farmers realized that if they farmed separately the team could produce more in total and still delivered the same amount of output required by the procurement system for government distribution of agricultural products in the economy. The Commune system was changed as the team was reorganized by distributing its land to individual households to farm separately, each getting the additional reward for additional labor after delivering a fixed amount of  output to the team for delivery to the government procurement agencies. Such practice was introduced and spread in many areas of the country. In 1978, Deng recognized its beneficial effects and adopted it as a national policy and called it the â€Å"household responsibility system.† Agricultural output increased rapidly in China. The farmers became richer. The success of reform in agriculture served as the foundation of reform in other sectors not only by increasing the supply of food but also by changing the ideological thinking of Communist Party members in support of a market economy. 2.2. State-owned Enterprises Reform of Chinese state enterprises is an example of a gradual approach to economic reform through experimentation. The first was to give state enterprises some autonomy in production, marketing and investment decisions rather than simply carrying out the decisions under a system of central planning. The experiment began in late 1978 with six enterprises in Sichuan Province. By the end of June 1980, 6,600 industrial enterprises that were allowed to make such autonomous decisions produced about 45 percent of the total output of all state industrial enterprises. The second was to make them financially independent, allowing them to keep the earnings as their own profits after paying taxes to the state, rather than as revenue belonging to the government. The third was to introduce a responsibility system similar to the household responsibility system in agriculture, first to selected parts of the enterprise under the important reform Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party in October 1984, and later to an enterprise in 1987. Under the responsibility system, a part of an enterprise was allowed to keep the remaining profit after surrendering a fixed amount to the enterprise controlling it. In 1987, further reform of the state enterprises was carried out under the â€Å"contract responsibility system.† After paying a fixed tax to the government having jurisdiction over it, each state enterprise was allowed to keep the remaining profit for distribution to its staff and workers and for capital investment. Within one year in 1987, almost all state enterprises were under the new â€Å"contract responsibility system.† The idea of such a system sounded appealing to the economic officials who designed it, as witnessed by the  author who participated at meetings with these officials. However, the incentives provided under the system turned out to be less impressive than expected. First, the so-called fixed levy to each enterprise was not really fixed but was subject to change depending on the profits of the enterprise. The tax was increased when the profits were higher than expected. This partly destroyed the incentives provided by a fixed levy, which would not interfere with the optimal marginal cost and benefit calculations of the enterprise. Secondly, the additional revenue was not put into good use. The managers could not receive sufficient compensation because a high salary to management was socially and ideologically unacceptable. When profits were high the workers received additional compensation in the form of durable goods such as color TV sets and refrigerators because money wage had to follow a fixed scale nationally. The additional reward was not dependent on additional effort. Third, investment policy might not be optimal in the sense that risk taking by a manager was not sufficiently compensated. Forth, the quality of the managers was poor in general because they were not trained under a free market system. Bureaucracy and personal connections determined the selection of manager to a considerable extent. Significant steps on state enterprise reform were taken in the late 1990’s as stated in the important report of Jiang Zemin to the Congress of the Communist Party in September 1997. China government was to give up ownership and control of small and medium sized state enterprises while keeping the control of large enterprises. Shares were issued for a small or medium enterprise, to be purchased by its managers and staff. The state would give up most of its shares. This would help an infusion of capital to the enterprise. In many instances, the incentives provided to the workers who share a part of the profits were significant. The large enterprises can be transformed to various forms depending on the circumstances, but most of these enterprises were to become shareholding companies of one kind or another, with the state controlling the majority shares. From my point of view, changing the form of ownership on paper alone could not and does not make the enterprise efficient. First, the management itself may not be improved. The lack of qualified managers of modern corporations in China cannot be resolved by such reform. Second, many managers were still selected  by personal connections under the Chinese bureaucratic system. One manager told the author that the new system did not change the supervision and authority his former bosses. These same people now became members of the board under the new system. Some managers also complained that the time spent on committee and board meetings increased under the new system. In some instances, the government was willing to sell the entire enterprise to a foreign investor, especially a person of Chinese decent living in Hong Kong or a South Eastern Asian country. There are examples of successful transformation of large state enterprises. 2.3. The Banking and Financial Sector When the planning system was being changed from â€Å"compulsory† planning to â€Å"guidance† planning as stipulated by the October 1984 Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party a macro-economic control mechanism was to be introduced which required a more modern banking system. Before economic reform, the People’s Bank was a mono-bank that had branches to accept deposits from the public. Its other functions were to issue currency and to extend loans to state enterprises according to the need specified and approved by the planning authority. It had no authority to decide on these loans. Commercial banks did not exist in the sense of being able to extend credits to enterprises according to the criterion of profitability. In 1983 the People’s Bank was nominally transformed into a central bank. Specialized banks, including the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China, Agricultural Bank of China and the People’s Construction Bank of China, were established and given some autonomy in the extension of credits in the early 1980’s in the same way that state industrial enterprises were given autonomy to make production decisions. This led to the rapid increase in the supply of currency in 1984 by 50% and an inflation rate of 8.8% by the overall retail price index in 1985. Reforms of the banking system to serve a market economy (as the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party declared China’s economy to be a socialist market economy in October 1992) progressed gradually in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s. In November 1993, the Third Plenum of the 14th Central Committee of the Communist Party decided to accelerate reform of the financial sector by giving more independence to the People’s Bank as a central bank and transforming the specialized banks to  commercial banks. Two significant dates are March 18, and May 10, 1995, when the People’s Congress passed respectively the Law on The People’s Bank of China and the Commercial Banking Law. Although there the provisions of these laws were not actually carried out in practice, the laws provide a blueprint for the banking system and serve as a convenient framework for us to understand the working of the system. Banking reform is one important example to demonstrate the rule that institutions cannot be changed by legislation alone. Besides the banking system, other financial institutions were changed. In 1981 the government formed the China International Trust and Investment Corporation (CITIC) to attract foreign capital. Similar investment trusts under the sponsorship of provincial governments followed. Stock markets in Shanghai and Shenzhen were established in the early 1990s. As pensions were provided under a new social security system, pension funds became an important source for savings and investment. The domestic insurance business, after being suspended for over twenty years, was reopened. Foreign insurance companies have been allowed to operate in China. The financial sector can be expected to expand further as foreign companies enter under the provisions of the WTO. 2.4. Education system Concerning the education system, while China had a combination of private and public schools at all levels before 1949, the education system was drastically changed in the early 1950’s. All schools were brought under government control, with private schools and universities taken over by public educational organizations. Higher education was modeled after the Soviet education system. Universities were broken up into colleges specializing in technical training. The special technical schools were administered by the government units requiring the services of their graduates. The operation of the education system was seriously interrupted by the Cultural Revolution, with many colleges and universities closed and school enrollment drastically reduced. Ever since economic reform started China’s educational system quickly returned to normal and began to improve. Universities were opened after the interruptions of the Cultural Revolution. Students were given opportunities to take examinations to enter universities and graduate schools. Intellectuals who had been criticized and mistreated were restored to their previous status and given due respect. People were eager to learn. Students seized upon their educational opportunities and studied diligently. The population as a whole wanted to absorb new ideas and knowledge from the outside world since they had been deprived of such knowledge when China was closed to the outside world. Foreign scholars and professionals of all kinds were invited to China to lecture, in schedules so full that even enthusiastic lecturers became exhausted. The Ministry of Education and the State Education Commission from 1985 to 1998, sponsored programs to cooperate with foreign educational institutions to improve education in China. At the same time individual universities were given the freedom to invite foreign scholars to lecture and they did so effectively. Students were sent abroad to study, and were permitted to go abroad by their own initiatives. Modern textbooks were adopted in university courses. Efforts were made to translate modern texts into Chinese and to write new texts in Chinese. As time went on, the skill in modern languages especially English improved rapidly and texts in English began to be adopted. 3.0. Conclusion In summary economic reform consisted of changes in agriculture system, reform of state enterprises, reform of banking and financial sector, and education system, which the changes taking place step by step depending on the results of and experience gained in previous steps. Many shortcomings of the China’s economic reform remain, but rapid economic growth continues. China’s economic development cannot be understood without taking into account its historical, political and cultural background. Based on the above discussion, we may learn seven major lessons from Chinese economic reforms. First, the most important principle for a successful transition from a planned economy to a market economy is pragmatism. Second, the incremental approach generates the momentum from earlier reform success and thus provides a political basis for the further reforms. Third, successful reforms rely on political support, which in turn depend on delivering tangible benefits to a large majority of the population. In addition, there are high international hopes that China will continue to be an engine  contributing to global economic growth for some time to come and signs of economic recovery in China have strengthened global economic confidence in recovery from the current economic recession.

Irving Penn :: essays research papers

Irving Penn has always strived for the best presentation of his work, he has become a master printer, revitalizing the platinum-palladium process as well as working with new techniques. The combination of innovative photography and meticulous printing has made Irving Penn one of the most significant photographers of the twentieth century. "Photographing a cake can be art," Irving Penn said when he opened his studio in 1953. Before long he was backing up his statement with a series of advertising illustrations that created a new high standard in the field and established a reputation that has kept him in the top bracket ever since. Penn has won renown as much in editorial photography as in advertising illustration, and his innovations especially in portraits and still life have set him apart stylistically. In later years, he turned to television commercials as an outlet for his unique talent. One of the most imitated among contemporary photographers, his work has been widely recognized and applauded. Irving Penn was born June 16, 1917 in Plainfield, NJ Educated in public; he enrolled at the age of 18 in a four-year course at the Philadelphia Museum School of Art, where Alexey Brodovitch taught him advertising design. While training for a career as an art director, Penn worked the last two summers from Harper's Bazaar as an office boy and apprentice artist, sketching shoes. At this time, he had no thought of becoming a photographer. Milestones In addition to his work for Vogue magazine (the American, British, and French editions) Penn has been represented in many important photographic collections, including those of the Museum of Modem Art, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Addison Gallery of American Art, and the Baltimore Museum of Art. In 1958, Irving Penn was named one of "The World’s 10 Greatest Photographers" in an international poll conducted by Popular Photography Magazine. Penn’s statement at the time is a remarkable summation of purpose and idealism: "I am a professional photographer because it is the best way I know to earn the money I require to take care of my wife and children." His first job on graduating in 1938 was art director of the Junior League magazine, later he worked in the same capacity for Saks Fifth Avenue department store. At the age of 25, he quit his job and used his small savings to go to Mexico, where he painted a full year before he convinced himself he would never be more than a mediocre.

Mun Unoosa – Topic: Space Junk – Country: Sweden

Jasmin Fashami 14 November 2012 United Nations Office on Outer Space Affairs Sweden Space Junk UNOOSA – Sweden A. Background of Topic 1. Space junk, also known  space debris and  space waste, is the collection of objects in  orbit  around  Earth  that were created by humans but no longer serve any useful purpose, which can consist of everything from old dead  satellites to explosion and collision fragments. These objects often overlap the trajectory of new space shuttles or satellites, which can cause a potential collision risk, damaging the equipment.Space junk presents a threat not only to space affairs, but also to matters here on earth; although most debris will burn up in the atmosphere, larger objects can reach the ground intact and present a risk. The ISS has had to repair numerous satellites and spaceships orbiting the earth due to the damage caused by space junk, causing them millions. Though the UNOOSA has published guidelines for nations to follow in h opes to reduce the amount of space junk, the UN still has many issues that need to be discussed and covered due to this growing problem. . Nations that are directly involved and affected by this issue include the USA, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, the Russian Federation, Ukraine, the UK, and others. 3. According to the U. S. military's Space Surveillance Network, there are roughly  22,000 pieces of orbital debris  larger than 4 inches currently in the outlying atmosphere, which include broken satellite parts and depleted rocket bodies. As these fragments travel through space, they pose collision risks to the ISS and the roughly 1,000 working satellites in orbit.Many incidents have already occurred, such as in February 2009, a U. S satellite was struck by a non-operational Russian satellite. The impact destroyed the two spacecraft and created large clouds of dust and debris. â€Å"If we continue, as we have, to use these very popular orbits in near-Earth space, th e density of debris and collision events will surely increase,† Marshall Kaplan, an orbital debris expert within the Space Department at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, told SPACE. com. Operational satellites will be destroyed at an alarming rate, and they cannot be replaced. We must prepare for this seemingly inevitable event,† Kaplan said. B. United Nations Involvement 1. Analysts first became aware of an emerging space debris problem in the early 1960s. However, February 2009 was when the UN first really got involved with this issue. The UNOOSA â€Å"called all Member States and international organizations to fully implement measures to curb space debris following the collision of an inactive Russian satellite with an operational one from the USA. This was the first major problem between countries regarding this issue. 2. Some organizations, committees, agencies, and NGOs that are involved with the growing issue include the United N ations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, the United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs, the European Space Agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, and the  Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee. 3.Every year, the  COPUOS  invites Member States to submit reports on national research regarding space junk and problems of collisions with space junk. Though there is no international treaty mandating countries to minimize space debris,  in 2007, the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space published voluntary guidelines for nations to follow. The UNOOSA needs to continue to pass more guidelines and rules regarding space junk, and agencies like NASA to be more aware of the debris and the issues they are emitting.Many methods have been proposed to solve this problem, but in the end, the international community needs to step up and put forth more action before the issu e gets worse. C. Country Policy 1. Sweden has set up a wide-ranging space company that has 40 years' experience in helping space organizations, companies and research organizations gain access to space, called the SSC, or the Swedish Space Corporation. This company has researched and developed numerous resolutions to many space problems, such as space debris. . Sweden believes that space junk in Earth’s atmosphere is a growing problem and is working to stop the damage it is causing. 3. On March 19th, 2012, Sweden, through the SSC, launched the REDEMPTION Experiment at the REXUS/BEXUS Esa Educational Programme, which is realized under a mutual agreement between the German Aeroscope Center and the Swedish National Space Board. REDEMPTION stands for â€Å"Removal of Debris using Material with Phase Transition IONospherical tests;† it is currently a work in progress.In order to combat space debris and a possible, upcoming tragic event known as Kessler Syndrome, many resear ch groups are developing technologies able to shift space junk into a safety orbit using a newly redesigned foam. Unfortunately, at the moment, a realistic system has not yet been found. 4. Sweden is still continuing to work towards the REDEMPTION experiment, whose main goal is to propose a new system based on a spray foam that solidifies.This can be used as a link between satellites and debris and will have to work in space conditions – this will avoid future collision between debris and space equipment. Works Cited http://esa. int/SPECIALS/Space_Debris/SEMQHL05VQF_0. html http://redemptionteam. blogspot. com/p/about-redemption. html http://space. com/16289-space-junk-international-response. html http://sscspace. com/rexus-12 http://un. org/apps/news/story. asp? NewsID=29908&Cr=outer+space&Cr1#. ULGS8Ie7OSp